STORMS
Storm, atmospheric disturbance in the form of strong winds usually accompanied by rain, snow, or other precipitation and sometimes accompanied by lightning or thunder.
The basic science of all storms
All storms have two things in common: low atmospheric pressure at the storm’s center, and winds that are created by the flow of air from higher pressure outside the storm toward the low pressure at the center. Wind, in other words, is air that’s being pushed by high pressure toward low pressure.
Areas of low air pressure occur because the Sun heats the Earth unequally. The Sun shines down almost directly on Earth’s tropical regions near the equator, heating this region more than the polar regions around the North and South poles and the middle latitudes between the poles and the tropics. Storms, along with ocean currents, redistribute heat from the tropics to the middle latitudes and the poles. Without storms and ocean currents, the tropics would grow hotter and hotter until the oceans boiled. In other words, the Sun’s heat powers the weather.
Air pouring into an area of low pressure from all sides rises because it doesn’t have any place else to go. As air rises, it cools, and if it cools enough the water vapor in the air begins to condense. This condensation creates the tiny drops of water or tiny ice crystals that make up clouds. Under the right conditions, the tiny water drops or ice crystals merge to fall from the cloud as larger water drops of rain or ice crystals of snow. This is why storms bring clouds and usually bring rain, snow, or other kinds of ice.
Lightning and thunder
Despite their dramatic behavior, thunderstorms are the smallest of the different kinds of storms. They average around 16 km across, but they often occur in lines that can be a few hundred miles long or clusters a couple hundred miles across. Thunderstorms are often part of larger storms such as hurricanes. While thunderstorms occur most commonly in warm weather, they can happen in the winter. Sometimes snow will fall from a thunderstorm instead of rain; this is called a “thunder snow.”
Every thunderstorm includes lightning because lightning causes thunder. Lightning creates a danger in any thunderstorm, no matter how large or small. Many thunderstorms drench the countryside with heavy rain, so you also have to worry about flash floods—that is, floods that rise very quickly, sometimes running over the banks of normally small streams. If a thunderstorm is strong enough, it can also create hail, or balls of ice that fall from the storm. Hailstones are usually less than 1.3 cm (0.5 in) across. Occasionally hailstones as big as softballs fall during storms, posing considerable danger because such large stones fall faster than 160 km/h (100 mph).
Some especially dangerous thunderstorms create winds called downbursts, which descend from the clouds and hit the ground going faster than 160 km/h (100 mph). Downbursts are sometimes concentrated in small areas less than 4 km (2.5 mi) across called microbursts. Thunderstorms also sometimes create tornadoes in the warm air that’s rising from the ground. Unlike microbursts, tornado winds spin in a circle as the air rises. Tornado winds can blow faster than 400 km/h (250 mph), but twisters this strong are rare.
Tropical Storms
Over the years, gigantic storms that originate in the tropics have killed more people around the world than any other single kind of storm. These storms are known by different terms in different regions. They are called hurricanes when they form over the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, or the eastern Pacific Ocean north of the equator. The same storms are called typhoons when they form over the western Pacific and tropical cyclones when they occur over the southern Pacific or the Indian Ocean. They all produce sustained winds of 120 km/h (74 mph) and faster. In their earlier stages, when their winds range in speed from 63 to 119 km/h (39 to 73 mph), they are generally called tropical storms. Hurricanes, typhoons, and tropical cyclones receive individual names from the weather offices that forecast them and are the only kind of storms named as they occur.
Hurricanes occur over oceans with water that is 27°C (80°F) or warmer in areas where there is also a layer of humid air that’s a few thousand feet thick. These storms draw their energy from the warm water and humid air. During their lives, these storms flow along the paths of the Earth’s large-scale winds, much like twigs floating with the current of a river. When the storm moves over land or cold water it begins to die, but a storm can stay over a warm ocean for a week or two, sometimes even longer, growing stronger or at least not losing much strength. A hurricane consists of lines of thunderstorms that spiral into the storm’s calm center, which is called the eye. Winds grow stronger as you approach the eye, and the very strongest winds occur in the wall of thunderstorms around the eye, called the eye wall.
As a hurricane’s winds blow hour after hour, sometimes faster than 160 km/h (100 mph), water piles up on the ocean surface near the hurricane’s center. If the storm hits land it brings with it this mound of water, called a storm surge, which can be up to 6 m (20 ft) high. Since then, better forecasts and well-organized evacuations have moved people out of the way of storm surges when hurricanes threaten, saving hundreds of lives. While water kills most hurricane victims, a hurricane’s wind, which can blow faster than 160 km/h, is also dangerous; it accounts for many deaths and causes a great deal of destruction.
The world’s biggest storms
Huge storms called extra-tropical cyclones or mid-latitude cyclones form over land or cool oceans outside of the tropics. While hurricanes and the other kinds of tropical cyclones draw energy from warm water and humid air, extra-tropical cyclones draw their energy from contrasts between cold and warm air. In a tropical cyclone the air is warm and humid and only rain falls no matter what part of the storm you are in. But conditions vary dramatically in different parts of extra-tropical cyclones. The southeastern part of an extra-tropical cyclone might have warm, humid air while the northern or western parts might be cold. Rain will fall in the storm’s warm part, but snow, sleet, or freezing rain can fall in the cold portion. Because the temperature varies most widely in winter, extra-tropical storms generally generate more power then.
The winds of an extra-tropical storm seldom blow faster than 110 km/h (70 mph), especially over land. While such storms don’t create the 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 ft) storm surge that a hurricane can bring, an extra-tropical storm that comes ashore from the Pacific Ocean or moves up the Atlantic Coast can cause widespread beach erosion and coastal damage for both the East and West coasts. The movie The Perfect Storm depicted an exceptionally powerful extra-tropical storm. Extra-tropical storms are generally most disruptive because of their ability to stop all travel—by road, rail, and air—across several states.
Some simple storm-safety rules
Tropical Storm, weather system composed of a cluster of thunderstorms and of wind speeds near the surface of between 63 and 119 km/h (39 and 74 mph). Tropical storms develop out of storms called tropical depressions, in which wind speeds are less than 63 km/h (39 mph). If a tropical storm intensifies so that its wind speed reaches 119 km/h (74 mph), the storm becomes a hurricane. In contrast to a hurricane, a tropical storm typically does not have an eye, or calm area, at its center. Tropical storms form over large expanses of warm tropical ocean water. However, they do not form in the regions of the eastern Pacific or the Atlantic oceans near the equator or south of the equator.
Tropical storms cause torrential rainfall and flooding, which pose the gravest threat to populated areas.
FORMATION
Most tropical storms form over warm tropical oceans from preexisting regions of low pressure called tropical depressions. In these regions, air is moistened and warmed. The hot air rises, creating an area of low pressure. The rising air forms thunderstorms. Air moving in toward the low-pressure area travels across the warm ocean waters, and is moistened. This air provides more water vapor to fuel a storm.
As the hot, humid air rises, the water vapor in the air condenses to form clouds and rain. When water vapor condenses, it releases energy. This energy is called latent heat, or heat of condensation. It represents the amount of heat that is absorbed or released by a substance when the substance undergoes a change of phase—in this case, a change from water vapor to liquid water. A storm is a type of heat engine. Latent heat powers a storm and intensifies it. A storm will intensify as long as warm, humid air flows toward the center of low pressure that, in turn, continues to attract air. In addition, the change of wind speed and direction with altitude (called wind shear) must be small (change of wind speed of less than 27 km/h, or 17 mph) so that the heat from the thunderstorm remains within the storm’s center.
The rotation of Earth also affects the movement of air. In the northern hemisphere, Earth’s rotation deflects air from left to right, while in the southern hemisphere it deflects air from right to left. This deflection is called the Coriolis effect (see Coriolis Force). As air moves toward a low-pressure center, the deflection causes the air to spiral around the center rather than travel straight into the center. The inward spiraling of air causes the formation of circular bands of thunderstorms, which are a distinctive feature of tropical storms and hurricanes, along with spiraling winds. The spiraling winds rotate faster as they approach the center. Centrifugal force flings the rotating air outward, making it increasingly difficult for air to reach the center.
As a storm intensifies and its winds gain strength, the winds reach a speed at which the air can no longer reach the center. The region corresponding to the maximum penetration of the spiraling air is called the eye wall. The eye wall contains the strongest winds. Inside this ring of strong winds, a calm area develops, known as an eye. A major distinction between a tropical storm and a hurricane is the presence of an eye in a hurricane. An eye forms when the winds near the center reach about 119 km/h (74 mph).
Within 5° of latitude north or south of the equator, tropical storms and hurricanes do not occur, despite frequent thunderstorms. The reason for this absence is the weakness of the Coriolis effect within 5° of the equator. In this equatorial region the winds can travel straight into the center of a low-pressure system and eliminate it. This process halts a cluster of thunderstorms before it can intensify into a tropical storm. Tropical storms and hurricanes also do not occur anywhere in the south Atlantic Ocean or in the eastern part of the south Pacific Ocean. This absence is the result of relatively cold ocean temperatures and persistent large wind shear.
DEATH OF TROPICAL STORMS
Hurricanes and tropical storms weaken rapidly when they travel over cool water or over land. In these environments they lose their source of hot humid air. They weaken especially fast over land because they lose the evaporation of warm ocean water.
INTRODUCTION TO A TORNADO
Tornado, violently rotating column of air extending from within a thundercloud (see Cloud) down to ground level. The strongest tornadoes may sweep houses from their foundations, destroy brick buildings, toss cars and school buses through the air, and even lift railroad cars from their tracks. Tornadoes vary in diameter from tens of meters to nearly 2 km (1 mi), with an average diameter of about 50 m (160 ft). Most tornadoes in the northern hemisphere create winds that blow counterclockwise around a center of extremely low atmospheric pressure. In the southern hemisphere the winds generally blow clockwise. Peak wind speeds can range from near 120 km/h (75 mph) to almost 500 km/h (300 mph). The forward motion of a tornado can range from a near standstill to almost 110 km/h (70 mph).
A tornado becomes visible when a condensation funnel made of water vapor (a funnel cloud) forms in extreme low pressures, or when the tornado lofts dust, dirt, and debris upward from the ground. A mature tornado may be columnar or tilted, narrow or broad—sometimes so broad that it appears as if the parent thundercloud itself had descended to ground level. Some tornadoes resemble a swaying elephant's trunk. Others, especially very violent ones, may break into several intense suction vortices—intense swirling masses of air—each of which rotates near the parent tornado. A suction vortex may be only a few meters in diameter, and thus can destroy one house while leaving a neighboring house relatively unscathed.
FORMATION
Many tornadoes, including the strongest ones, develop from a special type of thunderstorm known as a supercell. A supercell is a long-lived, rotating thunderstorm 10 to 16 km (6 to 10 mi) in diameter that may last several hours, travel hundreds of miles, and produce several tornadoes. Supercell tornadoes are often produced in sequence, so that what appears to be a very long damage path from one tornado may actually be the result of a new tornado that forms in the area where the previous tornado died. Sometimes, tornado outbreaks occur, and swarms of supercell storms may occur. Each supercell may spawn a tornado or a sequence of tornadoes.
The complete process of tornado formation in supercells is still debated among meteorologists. Scientists generally agree that the first stage in tornado formation is an interaction between the storm updraft and the winds. An updraft is a current of warm, moist air that rises upward through the thunderstorm. The updraft interacts with the winds, which must change with height in favorable ways for the interaction to occur. This interaction causes the updraft to rotate at the middle levels of the atmosphere. The rotating updraft, known as a mesocyclone, stabilizes the thunderstorm and gives it its long-lived supercell characteristics. The next stage is the development of a strong downdraft (a current of cooler air that moves in a downward direction) on the backside of the storm, known as a rear-flank downdraft. It is not clear whether the rear-flank downdraft is induced by rainfall or by pressure forces set up in the storm, although it becomes progressively colder as the rain evaporates into it. This cold air moves downward because it is denser than warm air. The speed of the downdraft increases and the air plunges to the ground, where it fans out at speeds that can exceed 160 km/h (100 mph). The favored location for the development of a tornado is at the area between this rear-flank downdraft and the main storm updraft. However, the details of why a tornado should form there are still not clear.
The same condensation process that creates tornadoes makes visible the generally weaker sea-going tornadoes, called waterspouts. Waterspouts occur most frequently in tropical waters.
Fronts
A front is a boundary where air masses with sharply contrasting temperature and humidity meet. Many kinds of storms occur along fronts.
A cold front marks the boundary where cold air is replacing warm air. On a weather map, cold fronts are drawn as a solid blue line with triangles. The triangles point in the direction of movement. Typically, warmer, more humid air is found in advance of a cold front, while colder, drier air is behind it. Along the front, the warm, humid air often rises and condenses into towering cumulus clouds that may develop into thunderstorms. A narrow band of heavy precipitation, often in the form of rain showers, usually accompanies the front. As a cold front approaches, atmospheric pressure normally drops. As the cold front moves on by, atmospheric pressure rises and the winds shift direction. The passage of the front is often accompanied by the heaviest precipitation and the strongest and gustiest winds. Occasionally, however, a line of thunderstorms may develop, out ahead of a cold front. This line is called a squall line and it produces heavy rain and strong, gusty winds.
A warm front marks the region where warm air is replacing cold air. On a weather map, warm fronts are drawn as a solid red line with half circles. The half circles point in the direction of movement. An average warm front has a more gentle slope than that of a typical cold front. As a warm front advances, warmer air glides up and over the colder, denser surface air. This process, called overrunning, produces widespread cloudiness and precipitation well in advance of the front’s surface position.
Warm fronts are best developed in winter. As a typical warm front approaches, the atmospheric pressure drops and high, wispy cirrus clouds form 12 to 24 hours ahead of the front. These clouds give way to thicker and lower clouds (cirrostratus and altostratus). As the warm front moves closer, cloud level descends and steady rain, snow, sleet, or freezing rain may fall from nimbostratus clouds into the cold air ahead of the front. Just before the front passes, there may be low stratus clouds and fog. As the warm front passes, the air temperature and humidity rise, the atmospheric pressure stops falling, the winds shift, the rain ends, and the fog dissipates. However, these weather changes are less noticeable than those of a typical cold front.
Cold fronts usually move faster than warm fronts. Consequently, when a cold front overtakes a warm front, a new front, called an occluded front, forms. Occluded fronts appear on weather maps as a solid purple line with alternating triangles and half circles, both pointing in the direction toward which the front is moving. Generally, the air behind an occluded front is colder than the air ahead of it. The weather and clouds preceding an occluded front are often similar to that of a warm front.
A stationary front is a cold front or warm front that shows little or no movement. On a weather map, stationary fronts are represented as alternating red and blue lines with half circles pointing toward the colder air and triangles pointing toward the warmer air.
Middle Latitude Cyclones
Middle latitude cyclones are huge low-pressure storm systems that consist of a cold front and a warm front, and, usually for part of their lifecycle, an occluded front as well. Middle latitude cyclones usually develop along a slow-moving or stationary front. Such fronts are common at the boundary between the mid latitude cell and the polar cell of the three-cell model. The boundary is a trough of low pressure, with (in the northern hemisphere) warm air to the south and cold air to the north. When a jet stream moves over a stationary front, the front may bend, as a cold front pushes southward and, to its east, a warm front moves northward. The junction of the two fronts is the center of the developing storm and has the lowest atmospheric pressure.
Winds at the ground (in the northern hemisphere) blow counterclockwise and inward around the area of low pressure. As the surface winds converge toward the center of the storm, the air gradually rises, often condensing into clouds. The heat released during condensation supplies some of the energy for the storm’s development (see latent heat). Additional energy is derived as the air masses struggle to obtain equilibrium. Warm air rises along the warm front and cold air sinks behind the cold front. The rising and sinking air transforms potential energy into kinetic energy (energy of motion).
The storm’s development and movement depend upon the winds aloft. Strong winds above the storm quickly sweep the rising air downwind. If the winds aloft remove the air above the storm more quickly than the surface air converges, the surface pressure drops and the storm system intensifies. Conversely, if the converging surface air is greater than the removal of air aloft, the surface pressure rises and the storm system weakens. Because the winds above the surface storm typically blow from the southwest (in the northern hemisphere), the center of the surface low normally moves northeastward.
As the storm system moves northeastward, the faster-moving cold front catches up to the slower-moving warm front. Eventually the cold front overtakes the warm front and the storm system becomes occluded. With cold surface air on both sides of the occluded front, warm air is no longer rising and the cold air is no longer sinking. The storm is now without its primary source of energy (the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy during the forceful lifting of warm air) and the storm system dies out and dissipates.
Some of the early signs of the storm in vicinity are as follows :
1. SWELL: As swell can travel a long distance, they can be felt at as much as 1000 miles from the center of the storm. Thus the direction of swell can be a good indicative of the direction of storm as it originates from the centre.
2. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: Drop in pressure is the indication of approaching low pressure region. After applying the corrections (i.e. Index error, height corn, latitude corn, temperature corn) to the observed reading of the ship’s barometer and comparing it to the normal pressure at the place ( as obtained from the pilots / barometric charts) , if the pressure drop is 3 mb, there may be a storm developing. But if the drop in pressure is upto 5mb, the existence of the storm is confirmed.
This drop in pressure is clearly indicated on the barograph. The approaching speed of the storm can be assessed by the steepness of the graph.
3. WEATHER: General weather conditions also indicate the presence of storm nearby.
i) Cirrus clouds in the form of bands and filaments aligned towards the direction of the storm center.
ii) Unusual clear visibility may be experienced.
iii) Increase in the wind force as the pressure falls.
iv) Threatening appearance of the dense heavy clouds at the horizon.
v) Frequent lightening may be seen.
vi) Succession of squalls
vii) Reddish /copperish colour of the sky at dawn.( a seaman proverb “Red in dawn, Sailors frown - Red in night, Sailors delight).
4. WEATHER FORCAST: Besides all the above indications, meteorological department also issues forecast for the storms. Weather warnings are promulgated on Sat – C and Navtex. Also early warning of the storm may be obtained from the weather facsimiles transmitted.
Besides we shall not forget the Buys Ballot’s law which states that when facing the true wind, low pressure lies on right hand in northern hemisphere and on the left hand in southern hemisphere.
The storm, is fast movement of winds. Winds tend to move from high pressure region to low pressure region, across the isobars. But due to rotation of earth and Coriolis force, the winds tend to turn to right in northern hemisphere and to left in southern hemisphere.
Thus by Buy Ballot’s law, if facing the true wind, low pressure lies on right hand in northern hemisphere and to left in southern hemisphere.
Storms are caused due to depression which typically is an area of circular or oval isobars with low pressure region at the center surrounded by high pressure outside. The intensity of storm or winds depends upon the closeness (gradient) of isobars. Closer the isobars, higher the wind speed.
Storms may be classified as temperate depressions or tropical storms. Though the above two may be known by various local names in different parts of the world.
Temperate depressions occur in middle latitudes at the front of cold polar air mass and warm temperate air mass. Their general movement is in easterly direction and extend over and area of 1500 – 2000 miles. They generally come as a family of depressions one after other. They are associated with cold and warm fronts. To avoid depressions or temperate storms vessel shall be reluctant to go to higher latitudes in winter. but if made to do so, vessel shall proceed with winds/sea slightly on bow of vessel. If conditions are not favourable, master may consider heaving to the swell and waves till the storm is pass by.
But in case of tropical storm story is quite different. They are intense storm with small area of about 500 miles. Thus pressure gradient is too high and exceptional wind speeds may be experienced. The wind is actually moving spirally inward towards the center of the storm, anticlockwise in northern hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere. Thus they are also called Revolving storm. Tropical storms have a typical tendency to turn around. Developed in tropical latitudes, as they move westwardly, they rise in latitude. Either they hit the land where they dissipate causing damage to shore or may turn around in temperate latitudes becoming temperate depressions. Thus to avoid tropical storms, v/l should be aware of the center of storm and the path of the storm. By Buy Ballot’s law facing the true wind, center of the storm lies 100 – 125 degree to right if the storm is abt 200 miles off, with the angle closing to 90 degrees as the storm center is getting closer. To avoid any damages to the ship, v/l shall ideally pass at a distance of at least 250 miles from the center of the storm, which is not always possible.
The avoiding actions for TRS are as follows:
Determine which quadrant the vessel lies of the storm. if the wind veers vessel is in RHSC and if the wind backs it is in LHSC for a stationary observer. If in northern hemisphere LHSC is navigable semicircle and in southern hemisphere RHSC is navigable semicircle, other being dangerous semicircle.
In Northern Hemisphere:
a) if the wind is veering (backing in Southern hemisphere) the ship must be in the dangerous semicirle. The ship should proceed with all available speed with the wind 10 – 45 degrees depending on the speed on the stbd bow (port bow in SH). As the wind veers the ship should alter course to stbd (port in SH) therby tracing a course to move away from the center of storm
b) if the wind remains steady in direction or nearly steady, it indicates that the vessel is in the path of the storm. she should bring the wind well to the stbd quarter (port quarter in SH)and proceed with all available speed.
c) If the wind backs (veers in SH) the ship is in the navigable semicircle. The ship should bring the wind on the stbd quarter (port quarter in SH) and proceed with full speed, turning to port (stbd in SH) as the wind backs.
In ports and harbours if there is indication of storm passing by, the best alternative is to proceed to the sea and heave to the storm.
Pitching, Pounding & Slamming
A breaking wave is considered to be dangerous especially when it is high enough to produce an impact on the ship. But the action of a wave that is not breaking cannot be undermined. The wave that remains unbroken may not be as high or as steep as the breaking wave but it has a considerable motion in the vertical plane. In almost all sea conditions there is a cycle of wave motion associated with it that is regular enough to cause a continuous motion of the ship’s buoyant structure. In open seas where the wind fetch is large (i.e. has a large unobstructed area to create higher crests and troughs) enough the resulting wavelength created of the waves causes the vessel to respond to such a falling trough and rising crest. From our general physics of wave motion we know that the time between two such crests or two such troughs is called the time period of the wave. If we consider that the wave period remains constant, the velocity or the wave amplitude must increase due to a constant effect of wind!!!
A short length sea is thus called one with a small wavelength and a large sea is one with a larger time-period or wavelength. (Hope we know that wavelength is directly proportional to time-period).
A large vessel would thus, given the buoyancy factors would be only supported at one or two crests in a large wavelength sea. This would in turn cause severe stress onto its hull and structure…bending stresses as we call them.
Pitching as we know is the vertical motion of the vessel about its horizontal athwart ship axis, or to say the axis would be a line drawn athwart ship at its amidships position. The period of pitch of a vessel is thus the time taken to descend from the highest position during such a motion riding on a crest and falling and then subsequently return back to the same position of crest. Synchronous pitching occurs when the period of pitching is equal to the period of the encounter with the wave motion which causes excessive racing of the engines as the propeller emerges from the water momentarily. Varying the speed of the vessel can alter this situation.
Pounding is the phenomena of vessel’s forward part coming out of water on and off due to wave motion associated with head seas as a result of heavy pitching, and hitting on to the sea surface after passage of every crest, particularly when the wavelength is medium and the height of wave is high. Thus when vessel is pitching heavily and sea waves are high, there may be time when the bow of the vessel comes out of water. When the bow return back, it strikes the surface of water with great force. It sends vibration through out the ship and local stresses are excessive.
Slamming takes place in the same way, the difference lying in the fact that the entire ship’s structure momentarily comes off the water surface, that is buoyancy decreases and hits back all along the keel. This would normally happen when the wavelength is such that two crests can support the entire ship’s length at the ends and the height of waves being high, when the ship passes over the troughs.
Though the vessel is designed to take local stresses in forw’d and aft part of the vessel, but to prevent excess stresses developing it is advisable to ride waves easily and smoothly. The fwd and aft part of vessel has increased scantlings and the frame spacing is reduced. Also intermediate longitudinals are fitted in double bottoms. But to reduce the effect of heavy seas it may be needed to slow down the speed of the vessel by slowing down engine, or may be taking the waves slight on the bow.
But if the waves are still strong as to toss the vessel, it may be advisable to reduce the speed as to maintain the course and heave to the swell till the sea subsides. To prevent vessel rolling much, check for the GM of the vessel. Do not keep any tank slack. Either fill it 100% or make it empty to reduce the free surface effect. If vessel designed to have heavy weather ballast in any holds or tanks, it should consider it. Also ship’s staff should take frequent rounds on deck so as to ascertain any damages occurred during the adverse weather time.
But prevention is always better than cure. Avoid going into region of bad weather by margin of safety giving due regard to the commercial commitment. b) if the wind remains steady in direction or nearly steady, it indicates that the vessel is in the path of the storm. she should bring the wind well to the stbd quarter (port quarter in SH)and proceed with all available speed.
c) If the wind backs (veers in SH) the ship is in the navigable semicircle. The ship should bring the wind on the stbd quarter (port quarter in SH) and proceed with full speed, turning to port (stbd in SH) as the wind backs.
In ports and harbours if there is indication of storm passing by, the best alternative is to proceed to the sea and heave to the storm.
Sea-Protest
Rule Paramount of York Antwerp Rules:
In no case shall there be any allowance for sacrifice or expenditure unless reasonably made or incurred.
General Average Act
There is a general average act when, and only when, any extraordinary sacrifice or expenditure is intentionally and reasonably made or incurred for the common safety for the purpose of preserving from peril the property involved in a common maritime adventure.
The onus of proof is upon the party claiming in general average to show that the loss or expense claimed is properly allowable as general average.
As per COGSA (Hague Rules):
Under every contract of carriage of goods by sea the carrier, in relation to the loading, handling, stowage, carriage, custody, care and discharge of such goods, shall be subject to the responsibilities and liabilities, and entitled to the rights and immunities hereinafter:
1. The carrier shall be bound before and at the beginning of the voyage to exercise due diligence to:
(a) Make the ship seaworthy.
(b) Properly man, equip and supply the ship.
(c) Make the holds, refrigerating and cool chambers, and all other parts of the ship in which goods are carried, fit and safe for their reception, carriage and preservation.
2. The carrier shall properly and carefully load, handle, stow, carry, keep, care for, and discharge the goods carried.
3. After receiving the goods into his charge the carrier or the master or agent of the carrier shall, on demand of the shipper, issue to the shipper a bill of lading showing among other things:
(a) The leading marks necessary for identification of the goods as the same are furnished in writing by the shipper before the loading of such goods starts, provided such marks are stamped or otherwise shown clearly upon the goods if uncovered, or on the cases or coverings in which such goods are contained, in such a manner as should ordinarily remain legible until the end of the voyage.
(b) Either the number of packages or pieces, or the quantity, or weight, as the case may be, as furnished in writing by the shipper.
(c) The apparent order and condition of the goods.
Provided that no carrier, master or agent of the carrier shall be bound to state or show in the bill of lading any marks, number, quantity, or weight which he has reasonable ground for suspecting not accurately to represent the goods actually received, or which he has had no reasonable means of checking.
5. The shipper shall be deemed to have guaranteed to the carrier the accuracy at the time of shipment of the marks, number, quantity and weight, as furnished by him, and the shipper shall indemnity the carrier against all loss, damages and expenses arising or resulting from inaccuracies in such particulars. The right of the carrier to such indemnity shall in no way limit his responsibility and liability under the contract of carriage to any person other than the shipper.
6. Unless notice of loss or damage and the general nature of such loss or damage be given in writing to the carrier or his agent at the port of discharge before or at the time of the removal of the goods into the custody of the person entitled to delivery thereof under the contract of carriage, or, if the loss or damage be not apparent, within three days, such removal shall be prima facie evidence of the delivery by the carrier of the goods as described in the bill of lading.
If the loss or damage is not apparent, the notice must be given within three days of the delivery of the goods.
The notice in writing need not be given if the state of the goods has, at the time of their receipt, been the subject of joint survey or inspection.
In any event the carrier and the ship shall be discharged from all liability in respect of loss or damage unless suit is brought within one year after delivery of the goods or the date when the goods should have been delivered.
In the case of any actual or apprehended loss or damage the carrier and the receiver shall give all reasonable facilities to each other for inspecting and tallying the goods.
Neither the carrier nor the ship shall be liable for loss or damage arising or resulting from unseaworthiness unless caused by want of due diligence on the part of the carrier to make the ship seaworthy and to secure that the ship is properly manned, equipped and supplied, and to make the holds, refrigerating and cool chambers and all other parts of the ship in which goods are carried fit and safe for their reception, carriage and preservation. Whenever loss or damage has resulted from unseaworthiness the burden of proving the exercise of due diligence shall be on the carrier or other person claiming exemption.
2. Neither the carrier nor the ship shall be responsible for loss or damage arising or resulting from:
(a) Act, neglect, or default of the master, mariner, pilot, or the servants of the carrier in the navigation or in the management of the ship.
(b) Fire, unless caused by the actual fault or privity of the carrier.
(c) Perils, dangers and accidents of the sea or other navigable waters.
(d) Act of God.
(e) Act of war.
(f) Act of public enemies.
(g) Arrest or restraint or princes, rulers or people, or seizure under legal process.
(h) Quarantine restrictions.
(i) Act or omission of the shipper or owner of the goods, his agent or representative.
(j) Strikes or lockouts or stoppage or restraint of labour from whatever cause, whether partial or general.
(k) Riots and civil commotions.
(l) Saving or attempting to save life or property at sea.
(m) Wastage in bulk or weight or any other loss or damage arising from inherent defect, quality or vice of the goods.
(n) Insufficiency of packing.
(o) Insufficiency or inadequacy of marks.
(p) Latent defects not discoverable by due diligence.
(q) Any other cause arising without the actual fault or privity of the carrier, or without the actual fault or neglect of the agents or servants of the carrier, but the burden of proof shall be on the person claiming the benefit of this exception to show that neither the actual fault or privity of the carrier nor the fault or neglect of the agents or servants of the carrier contributed to the loss or damage.
3. The shipper shall not be responsible for loss or damage sustained by the carrier or the ship arising or resulting from any cause without the act, fault or neglect of the shipper, his agents or his servants.
4. Any deviation in saving or attempting to save life or property at sea or any reasonable deviation shall not be deemed to be an infringement or breach of this Convention or of the contract of carriage, and the carrier shall not be liable for any loss or damage resulting therefrom.
Where there is no apparent fault or neglect on the part of the carrier, his servants or agents in order to cause the loss, damage or delay in delivery, the carrier is liable only to the extent that the loss, damage or delay in delivery is attributable to such fault or neglect, provided that the carrier proves the amount of the loss, damage or delay in delivery not attributable thereto.
The pieces of legislature quoted above determine the importance of a formal note of protest as per the normal practice of law to claim limitation of liability caused by potential damage to the cargo due to any circumstances caused by the points mentioned above.
The formal procedure is that upon arrival at a discharge port or a port of refuge the Master shall appear in person in front of a authorized Notary of the port state or an equivalent official (as per the port state) of legal stature lodging a brief protest for any potential damages caused due to weather or act of God.
Such a protest shall be in writing covering in details the circumstances faced at sea; that apparently are feared to have caused some unknown damage to the cargo; substantiated by documents like log book extracts and weather reports at sea etc.
In all cases the basic format should be such as to incorporate a non-guilty appeal and should include:
a) a good arguable claim;
b) a real risk that the final judgment in its favour would remain unsatisfied;
c) full and frank disclosure of all material facts;
d) the right to exercise discretion by the Master to extend the note of protest at a later stage when material evidence surfaces.
Such protest should be in the form of an affidavit and countersigned by the notary affirming having witnessed such a declaration.
The most important thing is that this note of protest has to be pledged prior to cargo work commencement or opening of any hatches / holds or any tank inspections.
Keeping it short and simple – a sea protest is a note of protest - an affidavit sworn by the master of the ship in front of a notary public recognized and empowered so by the port state, on account of experiencing bad weather or other perils of sea or act of God on way to discharge port. There had been no measures to determine any damages to cargo on account of above and the damages occurred due to circumstances beyond the control of vessel staff. The Sea protest is sworn and the right to extend the protest in future in case of any claims to the vessel is reserved by the Master. Sea protest may be supported by the evidences as extracts from the logbook, weather reports, vessel’s position, wind and sea state experienced etc.
It is to recorded on arrival discharge port before commencement of discharging (rather before opening up of hatches or holds). Master to inform company and if in doubt, may call for P& I club surveyor. Copy of the sea protest to be circulated to all parties engaged in the maritime venture i.e. charterer, receiver, owner, manager, P&I club.
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